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RURAL SCHOOL FACILITY ISSUES
Information on rural school facilities issues, including funding challenges, equity and adequacy, community support, size considerations, and facility improvements. 
2009 Open Architecture Challenge: Classroom.
http://www.openarchitecturenetwork.org/competitions/challenge/2009 (Architecture for Humanity, Open Architecture Network, San Francisco, CA, 2009)
Presents over 300 school designs from teams made up of architects, students, and teachers, along with detail on the award winnders. The economical designs are intended developing and under-funded areas, with an emphasis on affordability, sustainability, and portable or modular construction.
Joint Schools, School Facilities and Superintendents: An Alternative Approach to Address Community Public Education.
http://www.co.rockbridge.va.us/whitepaper/whitepaper.htm (Rockbridge County, Virginia , Dec 2008)
Reviews the recent consolidation of schools in Virginia's City of Williamsburg and James City County, as well as the sharing of a high school between the state's Lexington and Rockbridge Counties since 1992. Details of enrollment, financial, and legal arrangements are addressed, and a discussion of potential benefits of a local, system-wide consolidation is included. 6p.
Why Rural Matters 2007: The Realities of Rural Education Growth.
http://www.ruraledu.org/site/apps/s/link.asp?c=beJMIZOCIrH&b=3508815 Johnson, Jerry; Strange, Mary (Rural School and Community Trust, Arlington, VA , Oct 2007)
Why Rural Matters 2007 is the fourth in a series of biennial reports analyzing the importance of rural education in each of the 50 states and calling attention to the urgency with which policymakers in each state should address rural education issues. Overall, enrollment in rural schools is up by 15 percent, representing a reversal of the year-over-year declines these communities have seen. While overall enrollment is on the rise the most startling data revealed is the 55% increase in rural minority students, with some states experiencing increases of over 100%. The report also serves as a reminder that many rural schools continue to face a number of challenges, including high poverty levels, low student achievement, low teacher salaries and uneven distribution of Title I funds. 124p.
Examining the Characteristics of Rural School Districts.
http://www.peterli.com/archive/spm/1624.shtm Kollie, Ellen School Planning and Management; v46 n10 , p54,56-58 ; Oct 2007
Discusses the diverse demographic nature of rural school districts, how they are funded, a few particulars of rural poverty, and rural school administration, staffing, facilities, and technology.
Slow Motion: Traveling by School Bus in Consolidated Districts in West Virginia.
http://www.ruraledu.org/site/apps/s/link.asp?c=beJMIZOCIrH&b=2589073 Jimerson, Lorna (Rural School and Community Trust, Arlington, VA , Mar 2007)
Summarizes a study which investigated the lengths of school bus rides in West Virginia in districts with consolidated and non-consolidated schools, and the impact of this commute time on students' participation in extra-curricular activities. The study compared two "high consolidation" with two "low consolidation" districts. Tables compare data on how students get to school, how long it takes them to get to school, how many students travel over the recommended limit of one hour, the relationship of consolidation, mode of travel, travel time, and long bus rides to participation in extra-curricular activities, and the relationship of consolidation to students' aspirations to attend college. The results illustrate a negative effect of consolidation and long commutes on participation in extra-curricular activities, and recommendations to relieve the situation are included. 24p.
Breaking the Fall: Cushioning the Impact of Rural Declining Enrollment.
http://www.ruraledu.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=beJMIZOCIrH&b=1000115&ct=2039159 Jimerson, Lorna (Rural School and Community Trust, Arlington, VA , Feb 2006)
Highlights the role that state educational policies have in either magnifying the challenges of declining enrollment, or conversely, mitigating them. The report contains 20 policy recommendations, primarily focused on state funding formulas, but also on state support for facility projects, technology, and cooperative arrangements, as well as strictly local control over consolidation, without state incentives or interference. The recommended state and local policies can buy time and give communities and economies time to rebound and/or adjust to population and revenue loss.
17p.
East Haddam Public School Long Range Facilities Plan.
http://www.easthaddamschools.org/plans/lngrange/long.pdf (East Haddam Public Schools, Moodus, CT , Jan 10, 2006)
Presents this small (less than 1500 students) district's plan to re-organize into a three-school system consisting of a preK-3, 4-8, and 9-12 grade facilities. The grades 4-8 school is to be built, the district central office is to be moved to the municipal building (which was formerly a middle school), and the elementary and high schools are to be repaired and renovated. 11p.
One-Room Schools Holding on in Rural America
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5064420 Ellis, Neenah (National Public Radio, Dec 2005)
In 1919 there were 190,000 one-room schools scattered all around the American countryside. Now there are fewer than 400 left. National Public Radio's Morning Edition profiles one-room schools across America in a series running from December 2005 to June 2006. The webpage provides photographs of the schools, a description of the project, and access to the audio segments.
Rural School Consolidation Report.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED497049.pdf Bard, Joe; Gardener, Clark; Wieland; Regi (National Rural Education Association, University of Oklahoma, Norman , Apr 2005)
Reviews the history of and literature on rural school consolidation, defines consolidation, and addresses current research and issues related to consolidation with respect to school size, economies of scale, and student achievement. Includes 89 references. 21p.
Driving More Money into the Classroom: The Promise of Shared Services.
http://www.deloitte.com/dtt/cda/doc/content/DTT_DR_SS_Education_Nov05.pdf Eggers, William; Wavra, Robert; Snell, Lisa; Moore, Adrian (Deloitte Research , 2005)
Discusses opportunities and benefits for sharing administrative and support services between schools and school districts, particularly as a means to mitigate the necessity to consolidate. Types of shared services described include purchasing, transportation, food service, administrative support, technology, and facilities management. Seven benefits of shared services described are savings, standardization, attracting of highly qualified personnel, retention of local control, flattening out peaks and troughs, and lowering political opposition. Includes 70 references. 29p.
Why Rural Matters 2005.
http://web.archive.org/web/20051006025242 Johnson, Jerry; Strang, Marty (Rural School and Community Trust, 2005)
This is the third in a series of reports analyzing the importance of rural education in each of the 50 states. The report is framed around 22 statistical indicators grouped into four gauges measuring: (1) the relative importance of rural education, (2) the level of poverty in rural schools, (3) other socio-economic challenges faced by rural schools, and (4) the policy outcomes achieved in rural education. Data is presented in aggregate percentages as well as by state-by-state results.
Best Fiscal Management Practices for Rural Schools.
http://web.archive.org/web/20050403162432 Johnson, Jerry; Malhoit, Greg (Rural Trust Policy Brief Series on Rural Education, Nov 2004)
This policy brief highlights some of the leading policy issues faced by states, local school districts, policymakers, education leaders, and concerned citizens. The document is organized into five sections: 1) Guiding Principles of Sound Fiscal Management Systems; 2) Best Fiscal Practices; 3) Rural-Specific Concerns and Strategies in the Budget Process; 4) State Policy Options to Ensure Sound Fiscal Management; and 5) Conclusion. 30p.
Rural School Facilities: State Policies that Provide Students with an Environment to Promote Learning.
http://web.archive.org/web/20050910214147 McColl, Ann; Malhoit, Gregory C. (Rural School and Community Trust, Arlington, VA , Jun 2004)
Defines the essential components of a fair and effective state school facilities policy and suggests a series of policies in five key areas: 1) Setting priorities for approving and funding school facilities; 2) Adopting funding mechanisms that do not penalize rural and low wealth districts; 3) Creating standards for school facilities; 4) Defining the appropriate state role, setting ethical standards, and encouraging local participation; and 5) Establishing processes to evaluate state school facility programs and projects. Appendices offer guidelines and a checklist for state school facility programs and referrals to additional resources. (Includes 76 references.)
23p.
Competition or Consolidation? The School District Consolidation Debate Revisited.
http://www.goldwaterinstitute.org/Common/Files/Multimedia/401.pdf Murray, Vicki; Groen, Ross (Goldwater Institute, Phoenix, AZ , Jan 12, 2004)
Advocates competition over consolidation as a means to achieve school efficiency in Arizona, with school choice and expansion of charter school opportunities recommended. The costs and experiences of Arizona and other states with consolidation as well as the impact of consolidation on student achievement are discussed. 46p.
Report NO: 189
School Size and Returns to Education: Evidence from the Consolidation Movement, 1930-1970.
http://media.hoover.org/documents/ednext20044unabridged_56.pdf Berry, Christopher (Hoover Institute, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA , 2004)
Assesses the effect of school consolidation on education, revealing that savings realized by consolidating schools did not necessarily yield educational benefits, as graduates of smaller schools appear to have fared better as wage earners. Larger districts made up of smaller schools do, however, show management and educational achievement advantages. A review of the literature, explanation of the study methodology, and 25 references are included. 31p.
The Hermit Crab Solution: Creative Alternatives for Improving Rural School Facilities & Keeping Them Close to Home.
Lawrence, Barbara (AEL, Charleston, W.V. , 2004)
What rural communities can learn from the hermit crab is that finding and reusing cost-effective accommodations can be a brilliant survival tactic. This book offers educators and community members a range of such strategies to help keep their small schools in their communities. Four chapters cover the following themes: 1) the case for keeping rural schools local; 2) the condition of rural school facilities and obstacles to their improvement; 3)
creative solutions to rural facilities challenges; and 4) lessons learned and strategies to consider for planning with the community, identifying assets and liabilities, working with policy, and funding the project.
128p.
TO ORDER:
Edvantia, PO Box 1348, Charleston, W.V. 25325. Tel: 800-624-9120. http://www.edvantia.org/
A Decade of Consolidation: Where are the Savings?
http://challengewv.org/wp-content/uploads/publications Reeves, Cynthia (Challenge West Virginia, Charleston , Jan 2004)
Between 1990 and 2000, total enrollment in West Virginia decreased 11%, 202 schools were closed, and education spending increased by 16%. Per pupil expenditures increased more in West Virginia than in any other state, but student achievement remained stagnant during this period. Transportation and administrative costs rose in spite of the declining numbers of students. This report includes analysis of primary state policies that have led to consolidation including: 1) construction and renovations requirements that mandate minimum enrollments; 2) school funding formulas that discourage efficiency and flexibility; 3) transportation allowance that has no upper limit other than cost per mile traveled. Includes 8 references. 31p.
Land for Granted: The Effects of Acreage Policies on Rural Schools and Communities.
http://web.archive.org/web/20060104062907 Lawrence, Barbara Kent (The Rural School and Community Trust, Washington, D.C. , Dec 2003)
In many states, receiving state aid to build a new school--or renovate an existing one--is contingent on compliance with state policies that state the minimum acreage necessary for a particular type of school. This report finds that these minimum acreage requirements--imposed in 23 states--often create special problems for rural school districts. This explains the kinds of policies in effect in various states, and outlines their impacts on small and rural school districts. 15p.
TO ORDER:
Rural School and Community Trust, 1825 K Street NW, Suite 703, Washington, D.C. 2006; Tel: 202-955-7177.
The One-Room Schoolhouse: A Tribute to a Beloved National Icon
Rocheleau, Paul (Universe Publishing, Nov 2003)
From 1750 through about 1950, the one-room schoolhouse was a common fixture on the American landscape, with as many as 200,000 in total across the land. Today, approximately 450 one-room schoolhouses are still in use. This book is a celebration rather than a serious study of this American icon. It provides a tour of these structures still standing, detailing the best examples from forty-eight states, exploring working schools, some in existence for more than 100 years, schools restored as historic museums, and schools converted into private residences. 208p.
Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools: Expenditures in Selected Schools Are Comparable to Similar Public Schools, but Data Are Insufficient to Judge Adequacy of Funding and Formulas.
http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03955.pdf (U.S. General Accounting Office, Washington, DC , Sep 2003)
Reports that the Dept. of Interior, which administers Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Schools, does not collect and therefore has little data on which to base its school budgets. The researchers learned that BIA schools spent less on instruction and more on facilities than comparable public schools, and their transportation budgets did not cover actual costs. However, the goal of determining adequacy of these funding formulas was not achieved due to lack of data. 57p.
Long and Winding Road.
http://challengewv.org/wp-content/uploads/publications Lewis, Jim (Challenge West Virginia, Charleston , Sep 2003)
Describes the extensive busing of West Virginia school students, resulting in high per- pupil transportation expenses, and long bus rides for many students. School consolidation is blamed for the situation, with students and families complaining about the detriment to extracurricular activities, as well as family and community life. The improvement of existing community-based school facilities are proposed as a solution. 18p.
Save a Penny, Lose a School: The Real Cost of Deferred Maintenance.
http://www.lisc.org/content/publications/detail/875 Lawrence, Barbara Kent (Rural School and Community Trust, Washington, DC. , Jun 2003)
Describes the problem of deferred maintenance for school facilities, especially from the perspective of small rural districts. It examines the extent, causes, and consequences of deferred maintenance as well as recommendations for policy, practice, and funding that can help correct this national problem. 23p.
Saving America's School Infrastructure. Research in Education Fiscal Policy and Practice.
Crampton, Faith E., Ed.; Thompson, David C., Ed. (Information Age Publishing, Greenwich, CT , 2003)
This book addresses funding for school facilities. Contents of section 1, "Overview and Scope of the Problem," are: (1) "Unmet School Infrastructure Funding Need as a Critical Educational Capacity Issue: Setting the Context" (Faith E. Crampton); (2) "Financing School Infrastructure Needs: An Overview across the 50 States" (Catherine C. Sielke); (3) "Canadian Approaches to the Financing of School Infrastructure" (Vivian J. Hajnal); and (4) "Financing Captial Facilities in Higher Education" (Mary McKeown-Moak). Section 2, "Current Challenges to Funding of School Infrastructure," contains the following chapters: (5) "Capital Needs and Spending in Urban Public School Systems: Policies, Problems, and Promises" (James G. Cibulka and Bruce S. Cooper); (6) "Funding School Infrastructure in Rural America" (Jeffrey Maiden); (7) "Infrastructure Funding Considerations and Students with Disabilities" (William T. Hartman); (8) "School Finance Litigation: One Strategy To Address Inequities in School Infrastructure Funding" (David C. Thompson and Faith E. Crampton); (9) "Funding Technology versus Bricks and Mortar: Can We Have It All?" (Faith E. Crampton, Janis M. Hagey, and Kathleen C. Westbrook); and (10) "Should Principals Be Involved in School Renovations?" (Brian O. Brent and Marie Cianca). Part 3, "The Future of School Infrastructure Funding," contains the following chapter: (11) "Striking a Balance in School Infrastructure Funding" (David C. Thompson). 270p.
TO ORDER:
Information Age Publishing, 80 Mason St., Greenwich, CT 06830, Tel: 203-661-7602http://www.infoagepub.com
Developing Rural School Facilities.
http://www.americasschoolhouse.com/features/BJSS/DevelopingRuralSchoolFacilityPrograms.pdf Haley, Tim (America's Schoolhouse Council, Poughkeepsie, NY, 2003)
Rural school districts seldom have a comprehensive facility improvement plan nor the staff or time to develop a plan. Support from the rural community for new schools or upgrades to current facilities are affected by economic conditions and traditional attitudes. This discusses how communication, collaboration, and consensus building together can create an effective way to work with the rural school district. 4 p.
What Does a School Mean to a Community? Assessing the Social and Economic Benefits of Schools to Rural Villages in New York.
http://web.archive.org/web/20040421152649/ Lyson, Thomas A. (National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA.; State Univ. of New York, Ithaca. Agricultural Experiment Station at Cornell Univ.; Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (USDA), Washington, DC. , Fall 2002)
A study identified community-level characteristics associated with the presence or absence of a school. Data from the 1990 Census and the New York Department of Education identified 64 villages in New York with populations of 500 or less, 36 of which had schools, and 233 villages with populations of 501-2,500, 192 of which had schools. Results indicate that for the smallest rural communities, the presence of a school was associated with many social and economic benefits. Housing values were considerably higher in small villages with schools, and municipal infrastructure was more developed. Occupational structure differed qualitatively, in that places with schools had more people employed in more favorable occupational categories and more employment in civic occupations. While average household income was not markedly different across places with and without schools, income inequality and welfare dependence was lower in villages with schools. This study shows that schools serve as important markers of social and economic viability and vitality, and that the money that might be saved through school consolidation could be forfeited in lost taxes, declining property values, and lost business. 15p.
Closing Costs: A Summary of an Award Winning Look at School Consolidation in West Virginia, a State Where It Has Been Tried Aggressively.
http://web.archive.org/web/20060103222632 Eyre, Eric; Finn, Scott (Rural School and Community Trust, Aug 2002)
With the promise of broader curriculum and huge tax savings, West Virginia has closed more than 300 schools, one in every five, since 1990. In 2002, the Charleston Gazette investigated the outcomes of the state’s consolidation efforts in the series, “Closing Costs.” Some of the findings include: 1)The state has spent more than $1 billion on school consolidation; 2)the school closings didn’t save taxpayers money; 3) West Virginia counties statewide spend a higher percentage of their budgets on maintenance and utilities now than they did five years ago, despite consolidation; 4) the number of local administrators has increased by 16% in the last 10 years despite a 13% decrease in student enrollment and closing of over 300 schools; 5) the number of state-level administrators increased and their salaries nearly doubled between 1990 and 2002; and 6) West Virginia spends more of its education dollar on transportation than any other state; rising transportation costs have forced counties to slash funding from classrooms, offices, and cafeterias.
3p.
If This Is Democracy, Then I Missed the Bus.
http://challengewv.org/wp-content/uploads/publications Spence, Beth (Challenge West Virginia, Charleston , May 2002)
Relates the experiences of small school advocates who felt blocked from the school planning process after West Virginia awarded its counties planning grants in 1998. The author cites a post-planning survey that found flaws in the planning process, with parents and students typically shut out of the process. A climate of exclusion, secrecy, and conflict of interest is cited, and case studies from five counties are included. 13p.
Dollars and Sense: the Cost Effectiveness of Small Schools.
http://www.kwfdn.org/resource_library/_resources/dollars_sense.pdf Bingler, Steven; Diamond, Barbara M.; Hill, Bobbie; Hoffman, Jerry L.; Howley, Craig B.; Lawrence, Barbara Kent; Mitchell, Stacy; Rudolph, David; Wash (KnowledgeWorks Foundation, Cincinatti, OH; The Rural School and Community Trust, Washington, DC; Concordia, LLC, New Orleans, LA , 2002)
This publication summarizes research on the educational and social benefits of small schools and the negative effects of large schools on students, teachers, and members of the community, as well as the "diseconomies of scale" inherent in large schools. It asserts that research shows that measuring the cost of education by graduates rather than by all students who go through the system suggests that small schools are a wise investment. Using data drawn from 489 schools submitted to design competitions in 1990-2001, the publication concludes that small schools can be built cost effectively and that many districts are doing so. 31p.
The (Limited) Evidence Regarding Effects of Grade-Span Configurations on Academic Achievement: What Rural Educators Should Know. ERIC Digest.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED467714.pdf Coladarci, Theodore; Hancock, Julie (ERIC/CRESS, Charleston, WV , 2002)
Grade-span configuration refers to the range of grades within a school. Grade span is an important issue to various factions in public education, including advocates of middle schools and rural educators concerned with the association between grade fragmentation and school consolidation. This digest focuses on research that has examined the relationship between grade span and student achievement. While many case studies of grade-span effects in particular schools exist, little research has been done using techniques to control for confounding factors. Five studies using such techniques are briefly described. These used data from 18 New York City schools, 700 rural Louisiana schools, 1,001 Texas schools, 163 rural Maine schools, and 330 Pennsylvania schools. In general, the studies suggest that achievement in the middle grades is higher in schools having an elementary-wide configuration than in those with a middle-grades configuration. In a K-8 configuration, absence of school-to-school transitions and greater continuity of experience may contribute to higher achievement. However, only one of the studies considered the instructional or interpersonal dimensions of school life. Further research is needed to disentangle the effects of grade span from those of its corollaries. (Contains 12 references.) 4p.
Lowering the Overhead by Raising the Roof: and Other Rural Trust Strategies to Reduce the Costs of your Small School.
Lawrence, Barbara Kent (The Rural School and Community Trust, Washington, DC. , 2002)
This publication helps communities reduce
the costs of maintaining, building, and renovating good, small schools. It includes specific
strategies that rural communities have used to reduce the costs of their small schools. It begins by suggesting factors to consider before starting to plan a school facilities project, such as understanding the
resistance to small schools that many administrators and legislators may have, and also understanding the importance of examining and questioning state policies.
It continues by providing a total of 13 strategies
for reducing costs including the importance of good maintenance and siting and using renovation instead of resorting to new construction. The book ends with an extensive list of resources for further information on the strategies.
TO ORDER:
The Rural School and Community Trust, 1825 K Street, NW, Suite 703, Washington, DC, 20006. Tel: 202-955-7177.
Does School District Consolidation Cut Costs?
http://www-cpr.maxwell.syr.edu/cprwps/pdf/wp33.pdf Duncombe, William; Yinger, John (Syracuse University, Maxwell School of Citizenship and PUblic Affairs, Center for Policy Research , Jan 2001)
Evaluates the cost impacts of consolidation in rural school districts in New York over the 1985 to 1997 period. Holding student performance constant, school district consolidation substantially lowered operating costs, particularly when small districts were combined. The operating cost savings ranges from 22 percent for two 300-pupil districts to 8 percent for two 1,500-pupil districts. In contrast, consolidation lowers capital costs only for relatively small districts, and capital costs increase substantially when two 1,500-pupil districts come together. Overall, consolidation is likely to lower the costs of two 300-pupil districts by over 20 percent, to lower the costs of two 900-pupil districts by 7 to 9 percent, and to have little, if any, impact on the costs of two 1,500-pupil districts. State aid to cover the adjustment costs of consolidation appears to be warranted, but only in relatively small districts. Includes 44 references 56p.
Effects of State Policies on Facilities Planning and Construction in Rural Districts. ERIC Digest
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/ Lawrence, Barbara Kent (ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools, Charleston, WV. , 2001)
State policies greatly affect the decisions rural districts make about building or renovating school facilities. State, federal, and local mechanisms for funding school facilities are briefly described. Some states require a specific percentage of growth or decline in student population or a minimum number of students as a prerequisite for funding. Such policies ignore the many diseconomies of large-scale facilities and often force consolidation of small rural schools. In many small rural districts, population loss erodes the tax base, and taxpayers are reluctant to pass bonds to build schools. Population growth can increase property tax income but may also compel the community to incur more debt to house new students. Policies that require substantial acreage for school facilities may force districts to select sites away from population centers, creating large schools dependent on buses and automobiles. Even if the land is donated, bringing infrastructure to the site can be expensive. Few states fund maintenance, so districts often defer needed work, resulting in costly repairs or loss of buildings. In several states, districts are ineligible for renovation funding if estimated costs exceed a specified portion of new construction costs. However, estimates may exclude the value of the existing buildings, land, infrastructure, and intangible assets such as status as a community hub. Some states require an approved facility design, but adapting a site to a plan instead of creating a plan for a site may incur excessive costs. Community participation in the planning of a school helps assure support and long-term investment in the facility. 4p.
Rural Action Strengthens Ties between School and Community during Appalachian Ohio's Long Fight for Equitable
School Funding. Rural Trust Featured Project.
http://web.archive.org/web/20060104113326 Null, Elisabeth Higgins (Rural School and Community Trust, Washington, DC. , 2001)
Because school systems throughout America depend on local property taxes for much of their revenue, districts
with poor property valuations, especially rural districts, are facing fiscal crises. In response to a lawsuit filed in 1991, the Ohio
Supreme Court twice decided that the state's heavy reliance on local property taxes for school funding violated provisions in the
Ohio Constitution, mandating a thorough and efficient system of common schools throughout the state. The state responded
with a "cookie cutter" program of school construction and renovation based on minimum numbers of enrollments and class
sizes. This program is forcing school closings and consolidation. Meanwhile, the state has not yet developed equitable per-pupil
funding formulas, overhauled its school financing system, provided enough money for the construction and renovation program,
or paid for unfunded and partially funded mandates. The issue is still before the state's Supreme Court. Rural Action, a regional
organization dedicated to social, economic, and environmental justice, has launched an initiative to help citizens learn about
funding and facilities issues, develop priorities for their schools, develop leadership talent, and translate their ideas into action.
It has published a series of "Little Red School Books" clarifying tax terms, mechanisms, and policies; compiling readings and
resources; and helping communities learn how to set goals in advance of design and construction. It has also organized events
where students and teachers meet with state legislators, architects, and agency representatives to explain what their
communities need and want. 10p
Small Schools: Why They Provide the Best Education for Low-income Children.
http://challengewv.org/wp-content/uploads/publications Spence, Beth (Challenge West Virginia, Charleston , Oct 2000)
Summarizes research conducted in West Virginia that shows how large schools benefit affluent students but cause problems for low-income students, and that the magnitude of negative effects on low-income students is more than twice that of the positive effect on affluent students. The author uses this evidence to dispute the value of school consolidation in the largely rural state and impoverished state. Similar findings from Georgia, Ohio, Texas, and Montana are cited. 10p.
Long School Bus Rides: Stealing the Joy of Childhood.
http://challengewv.org/wp-content/uploads/publications Spence, Beth (Challenge West Virginia, Charleston , Mar 2000)
Decries the long school bus rides endured by children in several West Virginia school districts where many schools have been consolidated. Examples of some children's extreme ride times are described, as are the expense of busing, loss of extra-curricular activities, threats to children's health and safety, and the myth of greater class offerings at the consolidated schools. 10p.
Revitalizing Rural Education. Community Facilities Programs and Organizations Concerned about Rural Education.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rural Development Service, Washington, DC. , 2000)
This handbook informs school personnel and the business community about the opportunities available to assist rural community's efforts in revitalizing their education systems.The handbook's first two sections examine the different funding sources available for school improvement programs and loan eligibility, and discusses the benefits lenders can realize when providing these loans. The third, and final, section details the components of the Qualified Zone Academy Bonds (QZAB) financing tool covering eligibility criteria, the required business pledges, how to quality for a QZAB, tax treatments, and benefits to lenders. An example of a QZAB success story is also provided. An addendum lists examples of different community facilities programs. 25p.
Small High Schools That Flourish: Rural Context, Case Studies, and Resources.
Howley, Craig B., Ed.; Harmon, Hobart L., Ed. (AEL, Inc., Charleston, WV, 2000)
It is now widely recognized that small schools are more productive and effective than larger schools. Yet, public officials and professional educators in many rural areas continue to believe that small schools are inefficient and ineffective, a way of thinking reflected in closed schools, angry residents, and long bus rides for students. About a quarter of U.S. high schools remain small (with fewer than 400 students in grades 9-12). Part research report and part handbook for action, this book discusses the general status of small rural high schools, takes a closer look at four small high schools that are flourishing despite being located in communities of very modest means, and offers guidance to administrators and policymakers who would like to keep their small high schools but must grapple with numerous problems. 207p.
TO ORDER:
AEL, Inc., P.O. Box 1348, Charleston, WV 25325-1348. Tel: 800-624-9120.http://www.ael.org
Managing the Rural School Facility Construction Process.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Passarelli, Angelo; Goehring, Wade; Harley, Anne (Chapter 7 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support. , 2000)
The decision to renovate or replace a school building is the starting point for a long and challenging journey with
many phases: planning, development, and project delivery and construction. Each phase requires different levels of expertise,
skills, and activities. The challenge of a rural facility project is to find leadership to provide guidance through all phases of the
project. This chapter describes an approach to project management that can help the school district leadership to successfully
interact with the construction management team while facilitating open, respectful, and effective communication with local
stakeholders. This approach--the project cost management system (PCMS)--has proved successful in rural school
construction projects in Nebraska, Iowa, and South Dakota. Key to the success of this approach is a project manager with a
good understanding of community needs and a good grasp of the technical aspects of school facility construction. This
individual has responsibility for both developing community consensus and managing the technical details of the construction
process. The various phases of PCMS are described, along with the role of the project manager in each: (1) the planning
process (forming a facilities study committee, identifying needs related to building code violations and to new educational
models and technologies, and seeking broad-based input from staff and community); (2) design workshops to develop the plan;
(3) developing community consensus; (4) bond referendum campaign; and (5) project delivery and construction. 13p.
Gaining Rural Community Support for a Bond Issue: A Superintendent's Experience.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Bohrer, Stephen Dean (Chapter 5 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support., 2000)
The passage of a bond issue in support of school building construction or renovation can be one of the most difficult activities for a rural school district. The process of getting a bond passed requires a delicate mix of public relations, community education, and consensus building. In this chapter, a superintendent in a rural district describes his experience working to pass a bond issue to build a new elementary school. The story provides several lessons about passing school bond issues. First, credible leadership from within the school system is important. The superintendent must be viewed as serving the overall good of the school, and the school board and school staff must actively support the bond's passage. Second, community outreach and communication are critical parts of the political process. A well-orchestrated public relations campaign can be helpful, and the importance of sharing information with senior citizens cannot be overstated. It is also important to include members of all segments of the community in project planning and keep the local newspapers informed. Finally, the hard work of volunteers is invaluable in achieving success. 14p.
Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ Dewees, Sarah; Hammer, Patricia Cahape (Appalachia Educational Laboratory, Charleston, WV , 2000)
Most rural school districts face similar issues as they consider new facility construction, renovations, or additions. These issues are how to gain public support for funding, how to make the best use of local resources, how to design buildings that meet a variety of community needs, and how to design facilities that optimize instruction and use of technology. This book contains seven edited papers presented at the National Working Conference on Improving Rural School Facilities, held in Kansas City, Missouri, in March 1998. The papers are: 1) "Trends and Issues Affecting School Facilities in Rural America: Challenges and Opportunities for Action"; 2) "Financing Facilities in Rural School Districts: Variations among the States and the Case of Arkansas"; 3) "Preserving Heritage While Restoring and Improving Facilities: A Rural Community's Experience"; 4) "Creating Technology Infrastructures in a Rural School District: A Partnership Approach"; 5) "Gaining Rural Community Support for a Bond Issue: A Superintendent's Experience"; 6) "Maintaining Respect for the Past and Flexibility for the Future: Additions and Renovations as an Integrated Sequence"; and 7) "Managing the Rural School Facility Construction Process" 128p.
Trends and Issues Affecting School Facilities in Rural America: Challenges and Opportunities for Action.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Dewees, Sarah; Earthman, Glen (Chapter 1 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support, 2000)
School facilities needs in rural America and the means to meet them are affected by rural population trends, building inadequacies and obsolescence, and financial problems. Overall, America's schools have seen increased public school enrollments since the mid-1980s, but rural enrollments have declined, particularly in communities with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. However, rural population trends vary greatly across and within states. Long-term underinvestment in school facilities has left a legacy of crumbling school buildings in many communities. In 1996, 52 percent of rural schools had at least one inadequate building feature, and 54 percent had at least one unsatisfactory environmental factor. In addition, older rural schools had great needs to improve energy efficiency, upgrade the building infrastructure that supports new technology systems, provide flexible spaces to accommodate new teaching formats and expanded school services, and meet access requirements for individuals with disabilities. Because rural districts have lower enrollments, inadequate tax bases, and regulatory limits to their debt, they often cannot generate the revenues required to build school facilities. In addition, many have higher poverty levels and less ability to support local bond initiatives. Practical strategies for funding rural schools include state capital funding, state building authorities, interest-free or tax-credit bonds, converting vacant buildings, and increasing support through lobbying and public awareness campaigns. 21p.
Preserving Heritage While Restoring and Improving Facilities: A Rural Community's Experience.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Dickerson, Burton Edward (Chapter 3 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support., 2000)
In Waitsburg, Washington, the community was actively involved in a rural school facilities improvement project.
The district serves approximately 410 students in three buildings on a single campus. Spurred by growing enrollment and aging
facilities, the project included the complete renovation and restoration of a historic school building to serve as a junior high
school, as well as remodeling and new construction for the elementary school building. A new superintendent, hired after
efforts to build a new elementary school failed, established a facilities steering committee of key community members,
launched a monthly district newsletter, held a series of community meetings to gather feedback, and conducted surveys to
determine priorities of need for facilities improvement and to offer the community a range of project options. After the scope of
the project was established, a bond issue was narrowly passed and state matching funds were obtained. Separate committees
worked on the design of each building, with the local historical society involved in decisions about the historic junior high
building. To offset the limited funding available, crews of community volunteers did the initial interior demolition work, moved
furniture to temporary classrooms in churches and community buildings and then back to the schools when the renovation was
complete, and did landscaping. (Contains 26 references and a brief literature review on rural school-community involvement.) 16p.
When the School Is the Community: A Case Study of Fourche Valley School, Briggsville, Arkansas
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Hadden, Patricia Demler (AEL, Inc., Charleston, WV , 2000)
Fourche Valley School District in central Arkansas has a single K-12 school serving 157 students. The school is thriving in the face of adversity and serves as the center of the community in the absence of any local governing bodies or civic organizations. Interviews and focus groups revealed various signs of school success and progress: a positive school climate characterized by friendliness and caring; a beautifully maintained school facility; access to technology and distance education partnerships with other small districts; recent improvements in curriculum and instruction and an
emphasis on relevance in curriculum; uncommon professional development strategies; extensive engagement of community adults in school activities; strong leadership by the superintendent, principal, and school board president; a long-term partnership with
Arkansas Tech University; and addition of new talented teachers following state-mandated pay raises. 26p.
Creating Technology Infrastructures in a Rural School District: A Partnership Approach.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Jensen, Dennis (Chapter 4 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support., 2000)
Rural schools face significant challenges in upgrading their technology infrastructures. Rural school districts tend to
have older school buildings that have multiple problems and lack climate control, adequate space, and necessary wiring. In rural
districts, it may be difficult to find the leadership and expertise needed to provide professional development, create an appropriate
technology plan, and manage and maintain building and system infrastructures. In addition, rural districts may not have local
companies available or willing to partner with schools in technology projects, and staff members may not have the time or
experience to write grant applications for technology development. Wayne (Nebraska) Community School District overcame these
difficulties through a collaboration with Wayne State College, the chamber of commerce and city council, local businesses, federal
and state agencies, and the students themselves. In 1992, a districtwide committee of diverse stakeholders developed goals and
identified needs for a comprehensive technology plan. During the plan's implementation, the nearby college was a constant
resource. Stages in the plan included installation of a computer lab, distance education activities, expansion of technology
infrastructure with a corporate grant, and development of a communitywide computer network. Lessons learned from the Wayne
experience concern the needs for careful planning, continual training of staff and students, and a vision for the future. 14p
School Consolidation and Transportation Policy: An Empirical and Institutional Analysis. A Working Paper. Revised.
http://web.archive.org/web/20060105073652 Killeen, Kieran; Sipple, John (Rural School and Community Trust, Washington, D.C. , 2000)
This study examines the relationship between school consolidation and district transportation costs, effects on instructional expenditures, and institutional factors supporting consolidation. Data on actual student transportation costs across the United States indicate that despite widespread school and school district consolidation, transportation costs have increased, and transportation costs per child are greater in rural than urban school districts. Given the evidence that economy-of-scale arguments fail in rural school districts in terms of transportation costs, reasons beyond fiscal criteria must be driving consolidation. An analysis of the institutional environment shows how consolidation has been justified according to the exaction of state authority over local school districts, and has been supported through national policy towards housing and land use development. Institutional perspectives of organizational legitimacy and survival would not seem to justify consolidation, but consolidation always terminates some organizational form. Perhaps the organizational form of small schools and weak school districts makes them more susceptible to organizational death by other legitimacy-seeking organizations. It appears that higher transportation costs associated with extensive consolidation in rural areas constrain opportunities to fund quality instruction in rural areas. 53p.
Maintaining Respect for the Past and Flexibility for the Future: Additions and Renovations as an Integrated Sequence.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Swedberg, Dan (Chapter 6 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support., 2000)
As an alternative to new construction or consolidation, many rural communities are considering the option of retaining their existing schools, upgrading them through renovations, and providing community-sensitive and effective additions as needed. The feeling of being connected to one's community can be enhanced by the continuity of community institutions, and in rural areas the school is an important community institution. The integrated sequence approach to an addition or renovation project is distinguished primarily by the commitment and effort applied to analyzing the existing building and integrating meaningful existing elements with new elements. Challenges to successful school renovation include state and federal building codes and standards, the need for flexible design, and environmental concerns. Steps in the integrated sequence approach involve organizing participants; formulating a plan that considers the life expectancy of existing buildings, elements with potential for reuse, the value of existing building components, and other cost variables; maintaining good communications with the community and the builders during the construction phase; commissioning the building; and final completion. Case histories describe the sequential renovation and development of school buildings in Cambridge, Minnesota, and McGregor, Minnesota. 25p.
Improving Rural School Facilities for Teaching and Learning.
http://www.ael.org/eric/page.cfm?&scope=re&id=210&pub=x Dewees, Sarah (ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools, Charleston, WV , Dec 1999)
This digest examines the problem of upgrading rural school facilities, focusing
on specific rural issues, conditions that interfere with teaching and learning, and new funding
approaches. Almost half of U.S. public schools are in rural areas and small towns. Close rural
school-community relationships may make it easier to make decisions, communicate with the
community, and raise funds for facilities improvement. On the other hand, many rural districts
have financial disadvantages: low enrollments, which diminish available construction money;
lower property values, which lower the potential to borrow money; and high poverty rates.
About half of rural and small-town schools report at least one facility problem. In addition to
deterioration because of age, many rural schools must cope with new requirements for
teaching and learning. These include laboratory classrooms, flexible instruction areas,
multimedia centers, adequate space to accommodate parent involvement and an array of
social and health services, electrical wiring and conduits for computers and other technology,
accommodations for special needs students, and mandated removal of hazardous building
materials. Fixing these problems will be costly, and despite increased school construction
nationwide, rural districts have not kept up with urban areas. In 1997, Congress authorized
Qualified Zone Academy Bonds to make school renovation funding more accessible to poor
school districts. (Contains 18 references.) 4p.
The Multigrade Classroom: A Resource Handbook for Small, Rural Schools. Book 2: Classroom Organization.
http://www.nwrel.org/ruraled/publications/multig2.pdf Vincent, Susan, Ed. ( Northwest Regional Educational Lab., Rural Education Program, Portland, OR , 1999)
Offers guidelines for classroom organization that will
accommodate the multiple activities occurring in the multigrade classroom. Outlines an activity-centers approach to classroom design that designates classroom areas for specific purposes. Defines general considerations for planning, including activity level and noise likely to occur during different learning activities, use of visual barriers to define activity centers, placement of teacher
and student resources, traffic patterns, age and physical size differences among students, and storage of student belongings. A list of questions clarifies classroom design
principles and aspects of a particular classroom plan. Presented in workbook fashion, a three-step design process involves describing the present classroom, identifying specific learning activities that will take place, and drawing the final plan. 37p.
The Importance of Sustainability for Rural Schools.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Lawrence, Barbara Kent (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Rural Education Association, Buffalo, NY., Oct 1998)
This paper suggests that the fundamental characteristics of a sustainable community are economic security, ecological integrity, quality of life, and empowerment and responsibility. It also asserts that nurturing these characteristics within a rural school can forge stronger links to community, strengthen the local economic base, encourage students to live within the community, and increase the likelihood that the school will be adequately funded. A school can increase the economic security of its community by encouraging local and national businesses to set up branches within the school, by teaching entrepreneurialism, by establishing small student-run ventures, and by offering local and state incentives to attract business partnerships. Schools can contribute to ecological integrity by reflecting the culture, history, and materials of the community in its design. Schools must add to the quality of life as defined by the community. The paper also suggests that it is important that schools empower students with a sense of responsibility and decision making. Strategies for creating sustainable schools include: responding to the variation in types of rural communities; taking advantage of outside expertise; being sensitive to building design, construction, condition, and outfitting; broadening the search for resources and ideas beyond traditional thinking; assessing community assets; and investigating local, state, and federal funding and partnerships. 13p.
Options for Improving Rural School Facilities.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Stewart, G. Kent (Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities, Appalachia Educational Laboratory, Kansas City, MO , Jun 06, 1998)
Many options exist for improving rural school facilities, among which are questions of school closure versus modernization or replacement. This report addresses the question of the future of the community rural school and how communities, school board, and school executives can
approach school improvement problems. It defines and examines various available options in the areas of facility improvements, school maintenance, building operations, modernization. In addressing the issue of school closure, it lists several questions that should be answered so that the closure decision is in the best interests of the students and also supports the school district mission. The report also explores the option of reorganizing rural schools as either magnet, charter, or theme schools as well as using facilities for other educational or non-education uses. Finally, the option of marketing the rural school to students in neighboring school districts is examined. (Contains 2 references). 24p.
Politics of Building or Renovating Rural School Facilities
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Bohrer, Stephen Dean (Presented at Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities, Kansas City, MO , May 02, 1998)
While new school construction bond elections for rural school districts can be difficult to pass, success is possible. This paper presents one superintendent's effective campaign to build a $4.2 million elementary school within a rural community. It reveals the need to continually reinforce the message of committing to educational quality combined with productive communication with the school board and continuous efforts to gain community support. Successful school construction bond referendums are shown to have that best chance of success through intense voter registration efforts, continual canvassing, community meetings, and mass mailings to sway public opinion. It is argued that successful passage can also be aided with the creation of a long-range plan designed to convince voters that the need is legitimate. (Contains 12 references). 14p.
Need for Improvement of Rural School Facilities.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Hodges, V. Pauline (Presented at Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities , May 02, 1998)
This paper profiles the state of rural schools' infrastructure, rural districts' economic problems, and the need to upgrade school facilities. It provides a context for improving rural facilities, including discussions on ways to upgrade systems for technology needs, energy efficiency, and handicap accessibility. Additionally, it offers an analysis of schools in the pre-industrial age, prior to World War II, post war, and in the age of technology. The paper presents some of the minimum standards for a quality facility, including space standards, heating/ventilation/air-conditioning requirements, public review, and federal funding. Final comments address how inadequate educational facilities can affect instruction, and the role of the school facility within a rural community. 17p.
Financing Facilities in Rural School Districts
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Hughes, Mary F. (Paper presented at the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities, Kansas City,MO , May 02, 1998)
This paper addresses how rural school facilities are financed. It provides an overview of school facilities funding in the United States as summarized by the literature, a mini study of school facilities funding in Arkansas, and comments from practitioners and researchers on the issues presented. It argues that the same equity issues raised on expenditure per pupils and equal educational opportunity should be raised in school facility funding too; and educational quality, including that of school facilities, should not rely on the wealth of the local community. Arkansas, one state that does depend on local wealth for the quality of school buildings, is examined in terms of its great diversity between quality and ability to support school facilities. 32p.
Applications of Technology in Rural School Facilities.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Jensen, Dennis (Presented at Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities, Kansas City, MO , May 1998)
Rural schools often have difficulty in developing and implementing a 21st
century, K-12 technology plan. This report describes one rural school
district's (Wayne, Nebraska) successful efforts at technology integration.
It discusses the efforts of installing 25 networked computers in the local
high school, linking buildings with fiber-optic cables, automating the
middle school library, and creating a distance education program by
upgrading software and hardware to link the schools to the community
via the Internet. The report reveals that rural schools can succeed in
integrating technology into the curriculum, but it takes a united effort
combined with the rural districts' willingness to seek help from regional
and state agencies. (Contains 3 references). 15p.
Meeting Facility Needs in Rural Schools
Phelps, Margaret S.; And Others (Tennessee Technological University , May 02, 1998)
This paper explores the ways in which rural communities can enhance education in their own towns. Further, the paper highlights the conditions necessary for student success, indicating that this is best controlled when schools are the right size, when there is documentation of achievement, and when school buildings are safe and in good condition. It argues that today's increasingly technological sophistication in education requires specialized spaces that match the educational goals of the activities for which these spaces will be used. Such specialized areas, it claims, require enhanced infrastructure if they are to contribute to student learning. Schools in rural communities that are attractive and well-maintained, with quality curricular and extracurricular programming for all ages are investments in the community that do not demand consolidation to meet 21st century needs. 15p.
Rural Schools Facilities: Additions & Renovations As an Integrated Sequence
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Swedberg, Dan (Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities, Appalachia Educational Laboratory,Kansas City, MO , May 02, 1998)
The community/school relationship is considered vital in helping rural school districts adapt to changing needs through renovation and/or expansion of its school facilities. How these needs are met involves choices that include consolidation with another district, new school construction, or renovation and adding on to an existing school. This paper argues that the addition/renovation choice can often be a successful one in meeting the changing needs of a school or district, and presents the "integrated sequence" method for analyzing an existing building's reusable resources in meeting those needs. It presents an overview on how the rural school is the center of community life and the consequences of consolidating school districts followed by a discussion of the issues surrounding an integrated sequence of development, such as site size, the planning process, building valuation, creation of a flexible design, issues involving construction, and environmental concerns. Two case histories of school districts using this approach are presented. (Contains 13 references). 22p.
Community Involvement for Improving Rural School Facilities.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Dickerson, Burton Edward (Paper presented at the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities, Kansas City, MO , May 1998)
This report examines the community-school
relationship in a rural school facilities improvement project in Waitsburg,
Washington. It offers a brief overview describing the school district
followed by an in-depth review of the Waitsburg community's role in their
facilities improvement project, a project that included the complete
renovation and restoration of a historic school building serving as a junior
high facility and the remodeling and new construction to upgrade the
elementary school building. The report shows the importance of having
positive contributions by community groups and individuals in completing
these projects. It further reveals how productive involvement in school
district operations is fostered through open communication, positive
responsiveness to community wishes, and the creation of a sense of
community ownership. 26p.
The Log School: A Case for Appropriate Design
http://web.archive.org/web/20060105082411 Barnhardt, Ray; Dubbs, Patrick J. (University of Alaska, Center for Cross-Cultural Studies, Fairbanks , 1998)
For many remote northern communities, especially Native American communities, the renovation or design construction and heating of the
school would be more culturally and technologically appropriate if local materials and expertise were utilized. In addition there would be widespread beneficial outcomes for the quality of life in the local community.
This paper focuses on the de-localization of northern rural communities. The second part of the paper explores how the design, construction and maintenance of the log school could reduce de-localization and contribute significantly to the cultural, economic and technical well-being of the community particularly its educational system. 22p.
Planning Schools for Rural Communities
http://www.ael.org/rel/rural/pdf/planning.pdf Harmon, Hobart; Howley, Craig; Smith,Charles; Dickens, Ben (Appalachia Educational Laboratory, Inc., Charleston, WV , 1998)
School improvement in rural places cannot succeed without attention to the rural
context of learning. Most especially, smaller schools need to be preserved and sustained in rural
areas, particularly impoverished communities, for the sake of student achievement and personal
development. This school improvement tool suggests the character of a "good rural community
school" and briefly considers the relationships among learning, community, and facility
construction in rural areas. A 20-point "Rural Community Schools' Facility Checklist" is included
that reflects connections to community, curriculum, and issues related to quality of life in rural
places. 9p.
The Characteristics of Rural One-Room Schools in Barbour County, West Virginia, That Represent Characteristics of Rural One-Room Schools in General.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Hepler, Linda (M.A. Thesis, Salem-Teikyo University, 1998)
The characteristics of one-room rural schools in Barbour County, West Virginia, are representative of one-room rural school characteristics in general. These include building design and problems; teacher' lives and duties, certification, salaries, and training; scheduling and curriculum; games; punishments; and hot lunch programs. Since one-room schools no longer operate in Barbour County, data included personal communications with people who had taught in or attended the schools. A historical background discusses state school laws from 1642 to 1936. A literature review details general characteristics of rural one-room schools: design, construction, and facilities; restrictions on teachers' private lives; teachers' instructional and extracurricular duties; use of the school as an agency for community change; teacher certification requirements and salaries; establishment of normal schools in West Virginia for teacher training; inservice education; daily scheduling and curriculum in the schoolhouse; games played; undesirable and appropriate punishments; early hot lunch programs; and facility lighting, heating, and ventilation problems. Drawing on personal anecdotes, characteristics of Barbour County's one-room schools are discussed in relation to prevailing characteristics nationwide. 85p.
What Difference Do Local Schools Make? A Literature Review and Bibliography.
http://web.archive.org/web/20060110014421 Salant, Priscilla; Waller, Anita (Rural Schools and Community Trust. Prepared for the Annenberg Rural Challenge Policy Program. , 1998)
This paper reviews the literature on the noneducational impacts of rural schools on their communities and provides an annotated bibliography of sources. Taken as a whole, the literature suggests that the school-community relationship is multifaceted. Community schools have positive economic impacts related to local employment, retail sales, and infrastructure; have positive social impacts related to social integration and collective community identity; function as an arena for local politics; provide a resource for community development through student projects and school-to-work programs; and offer a delivery point for health and social services, improving access to health care and other services. The annotated bibliography has two sections containing 43 research papers and 68 advocacy and position papers. Entries were published 1938-98 (primarily in the 1980s and 1990s) and include journal articles, federal documents, conference papers, monographs, books, book chapters, research bulletins, and master's theses. 48p.
Long Rides, Tough Hides: Enduring Long School Bus Rides.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Zars, Belle (The Rural School and Community Trust, Arlington, VA , Jan 1998)
Presents anecdotes from Montana, the Navajo Reservation, West Virginia, and Colorado that describe long school bus rides and the hardships that accompany them. Research on busing is reviewed and found to be scarce and insubstantial. Two of the most recent researchers have found that busing could be considered exploitation of children's time, and that students with large average times on buses report lower grades, poorer levels of fitness, fewer social activities, and poor study habits. Knowing more about the effects of busing might lead to better choices about closing, maintaining, or opening new schools in rural areas. 7p.
Primary School Physical Environment and Health.
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1997/WHO_SCHOOL_97.2.pdf (World Health Organization, Washington, DC , 1997)
Identifies key objectives for achieving healthier school environments, particularly in developing countries. Successive chapters describe the current situation, review the main correlations between school environments and student health, and identify eight key objectives to significantly advance school environmental health. The document de-emphasizes buildings, stressing sanitation, total school environments, operations and maintenance, and local rather than centralized control. Includes 98 references. 93p.
America's Country Schools
Gulliford, Andrew (University Press of Colorado, Niwot, CO , 1996)
As late as 1913, half of U.S. schoolchildren were enrolled in the country's
212,000 one-room schools--the heart of American education. Although only about 428 of
these schools remain in use as of 1994, the country school continues to be a powerful
cultural symbol. The first section of this book examines country schools' educational and
cultural legacy. Chapters (1) provide an overview placing country schools in the larger social
and historical framework of American education; (2) describe the country school
curriculum, discipline, and teaching methods; (3) present anecdotes and memoirs describing
teacher education, teaching conditions, and teachers' lives on the Western frontier in the late
19th and early 20th centuries; (4) portray the role country schools played as rural
community centers; (5) discuss the assimilation of immigrants and minorities in rural schools,
focusing on Native Americans, Blacks, and Hispanics; and (6) look at public, private, and
parochial country schools in operation today. The second section examines the great variety
of design in country school architecture, including schoolhouse sites, architect designs,
building forms, building materials and techniques, classroom furniture, and building
standardization. The third section discusses the preservation and restoration of country
schools; describes new uses as museums, centers for living history programs, and
community centers; presents preservation case studies; and lists one-room schools, by state,
that remain in public ownership. This book contains approximately 275 references, 400
photographs, numerous illustrations, and an index.
296p.
Socio-Economic Impacts of School Consolidation on Host and Vacated Communities.
http://agecon.lib.umn.edu/cgi-bin/pdf_view.pl?paperid=96&ftype=.pdf Sell, Randall S.; Leistritz, F. Larry; Thompson, JoAnn M. (North Dakota State University Department of Agricultural Economics , 1996)
The number of public high school districts in North Dakota declined from 256 to 186 during 1970-94; 22 school districts were eliminated in the last 5 years of that period. A survey was conducted in eight communities (four pairs) that had gone through school district consolidation and school closing during 1991-94. Community populations in 1994 ranged from 45 to 696, and 6 communities had experienced recent population declines. Schools that closed had 47-97 students in their last year, while consolidated schools had 75-677 students in 1994. Responses were received from 601 of 2,190 residents surveyed and covered perceived reasons for school consolidation; impacts on community social infrastructure, retail trade, and quality of life; consequences for students; and ease of transition. In the past 10 years, participation in community organizations increased in host (receiving) communities and declined in vacated (school-closing) communities, while retail trade and number of businesses declined in both types of communities. Quality of life scores did not differ by type of community before consolidation, declined in both types after consolidation, and were considerably lower in vacated communities than in host communities after consolidation. Both groups felt that students were better off academically and socially after consolidation, and that having public meetings was the most important factor in easing the process of consolidation. 60p.
Integrating Education, Health, and Social Services: A New Role for Delaware's Schools?
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery VanSciver, James H.; Bhaerman, Robert (Research for Better Schools, Inc., Philadelphia, PA , 1995)
This paper reports on recommendations resulting from a 1994 conference conducted by the Delaware Rural
Assistance Council on "Designing Rural Schools as Community Learning and Service Centers." Specifically, the purpose of
the conference was to develop information, insights, and plans that would help the staffs of educational, health, and social
service agencies make decisions leading to better coordination of rural community services. Participants included
administrators, teachers, counselors, nurses, support staff, and school board members from rural school districts in
Delaware and representatives of community health and social services agencies. A number of key concepts and
recommendations were generated, dealing with identifying stakeholders involved in the process of designing rural schools as
community learning and service centers; identifying the essential needs of children, youth, and families; developing initial
action plans; and exploring ways in which existing county interagency councils can work more closely with schools.
Twenty-five recommendations directed toward the Delaware RAC, school districts, and community service agencies cover
advocacy, networking, and planning strategies for integrating services in rural school districts. 7p.
Perspectives on Designing Rural Schools As Community Learning and Service
Centers.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Bhaerman, Robert; And Others (Research for Better Schools, Inc., Philadelphia, PA , 1995)
In 1994, a 2-day symposium was conducted on a broadened, more inclusive
mission for rural schools--rural schools functioning as community learning and service centers.
The symposium aimed to enhance the knowledge base related to five key dimensions that must
be planned, implemented, and evaluated when designing rural schools in this fashion: community
development; economic development; partnerships among family, school and community;
school-to-work transition; and integrating education, health, and social services. 43p.
Emergency Procedures for Schools: A Guide and Disaster Plan Framework for Rural and Small School Districts.
Ritchie, Ralph W. (Ritchie Unlimited Publications, Mohawk Valley, OR , 1995)
This is designed to provide a school or district with background and a framework for a disaster plan, including a checklist of contingencies. Covers legal implications, emergency food and water supply, computers in a disaster, disaster tools, emergency security, data and record saving, and disaster stress trauma. 169p.
"Is There Life in Town after the Death of the High School?" or High Schools and the Population of Midwest Towns.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Dreier, William H.; Goudy, Willis (Paper presented at the Annual Rural and Small Schools Conference, Manhattan, KS, Oct 24, 1994)
An overview of the history of rural school consolidation in north central Iowa reveals that by 1994, 9 of the 10 high schools in towns of less than 500 in 1940 had closed, and 3 of the 5 high schools in towns with populations of 500-999 had closed. However, all three towns with populations over 1,000 in 1940 had high schools in 1993-94. This down-sizing trend is evident in all areas of Iowa in that the number of towns with a high school decreased to 727 in 1950, to 419 in 1970, and to 359 in 1990. This study examined whether a greater percentage of incorporated towns in Iowa with a high school had a population increase, compared to towns without a high school during the same decades. During 1930-50, rural areas lost population, but the state gained and the number of places with high schools did not change. During 1950-70, population trends were the same, but a greater number of places lost their high schools to consolidation. During 1970-90, the state lost population, and the number of communities without a high school continued to increase. Data analysis revealed that half the communities with a high school gained a significant amount (5 percent or more) of population over 2 or more decades, and within the same time frame, three-fourths of communities without a high school were losing population. This study concludes that a community without a high school loses population faster when compared to all the towns losing population during the same time period. 12p.
Nebraska School Facilities: Educational Adequacy of Structures and Their Funding.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Pool, Dennis L. (Paper presented at the Annual Rural and Small School Conference, Manhattan, KS , Oct 1993)
In 1991, Nebraska school superintendents and building administrators were surveyed about the physical condition of school facilities, their adequacy for instruction, and each district's fiscal capacity to maintain and construct school facilities. Responses were analyzed by five categories: class (size) of school district, quartile of valuation per pupil, population change category on the 1990 county census, time period of facility construction, and instructional type of building (grade range). Overall, 40 percent of administrators felt that their facilities impeded desired changes in instructional programming, and 55 percent of buildings were not completely handicapped accessible. However, there were significant differences among districts by size, fiscal capacity, and recent population change. Small school districts reported higher rates of inadequate buildings, low sinking fund rates, little bond debt, and little confidence that bond issues would be successful. K-12 school buildings were reported only in small districts, usually districts experiencing population decline; most buildings were 40-90 years old and contained uncomfortable and obsolete classrooms. The inequity resulting from dependence on property tax for funding of school facilities construction means that poorer districts do not have the potential to construct or upgrade facilities. Statewide recommendations are outlined. 9p.
The Landslide Passage of a Seven Million Dollar School Bond Referendum in Rural Virginia.
Greig, Richard D. (Paper presented at the Annual Southern Rural Education Conference, Atlanta, GA , Apr 1990)
This paper describes a campaign for the passage of a 1989 bond
referendum for the construction of two elementary schools in rural
Lunenburg County, Virginia. The article, written from the perspective of a
neophyte school superintendent, offers a demographic description of the
county, describes various voter groups, and provides a chronology of
events surrounding eventual passage of the referendum. A school
board-directed campaign of speeches, letters, and community-based
organizing was used to support the bond issue referendum, which
passed in every precinct. The paper concludes with recommendations for
similar campaigns that emphasize the importance of grass-roots
organizing, establishing the "moral high ground," focusing on the
district's true needs, and starting the voter-education process early. 9p.
A Technical Report on the Condition of School Buildings in Rural and Small School Districts.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery Honeyman, David S (Kansas State University, Center for Extended Services, Manhattan, KS , 1987)
This study was undertaken to assess the condition of school facilities in
rural and small school districts in the 50 states and analyze the
mechanisms used by rural and small school districts to finance capital
outlay. The study is part of an ongoing effort to address concerns
specific to rural and small schools in the United States. The focus of the
study is on the condition of school buildings in rural and small school
districts in the United States. The sample used was drawn from districts
with student enrollments of less than 800 and existing outside of
standard metropolitan statistical areas. Usable responses were received
from 263 districts from 37 states. Information is categorized into
individual building data and descriptive and financial data from each
responding district. In addition to general descriptive data, there is
information specific to the methods used by each district in support of
capital outlay. Data include district enrollment, expenditures for outlay
and maintenance, sources for generating capital outlay, age of buildings,
use and accessibility of buildings, safety of buildings, and replacement
costs of buildings. The report is presented in two sections. The first
section details the mean, standard deviation and range of the values
reported for each variable by all respondents to the survey. It also offers
the same values for each variable grouped according to the geographic
region in which the school district is located. The second section
analyzes each variable independently. Quartiles, histograms, boxplots,
normal probability plots, and frequency counts are given. There is no
attempt to recommend changes for rectifying the situation. 121p.
Nobody's There.
http://www.peterli.com/spm/resources/articles/archive.php?article_id=2115 McMilin, Edward School Planning and Management; v48 n2 , p38-40 ; Feb 2009
Addresses declining school enrollment in some regions, suggesting an organized and thoughtful procedure for closing a school, preparing and securing a school for vacancy, and maintaining a vacant school.
Coming Together: The Pros and Cons of School Consolidation.
Dolph, David School Business Affairs; v74 n11 , p26,27 ; Dec 2008
Reviews the benefits of school consolidation to curriculum and extracurricular offerings, staffing, student diversification, and financing. Possible disadvantages include loss of a sense of community around closed schools, opposition to levies from these constituents, and objection to large schools and classes. Includes three references.
Can Good Design Boost the Case for School Consolidation?
http://www.djc.com/news/co/11203986.html Bates, Tom Seattle Daily Journal of Commerce; Aug 28, 2008
Discusses some benefits of consolidating under-utilized schools, and how thoughtful facility design can ease the trauma of consolidation, and even better serve the educational program.
The Final Decision: Community Participation and School Closure Decisions.
Lavner, Mark; Finnigan, Kara School Business Affairs; v74 n2 , p22,24-26 ; Feb 2008
Reviews one district's experience with public engagement during a school closure process. The criteria used to rank the schools are detailed, as is the presence or absence of community support for various schools under consideration. Recommendations for running a fair and equitable school closure process are included.
North Dakota High School Champions Education, Environment Over Aesthetics.
http://www.schoolconstructionnews.com/ME2/Audiences Perry, Amy School Construction News; v10 n7 , p18-20 ; Nov-Dec 2007
Profiles Turtle Mountain Community High School, a Chippewa Indian reservation facility that maintains a very low profile, "blank" design into which the occupants intend to incorporate the tribe's iconic program. Challenges of meeting the LEED Silver standard in a remote area near Canada are also discussed, and a list of suppliers is included.
Impact Aid Expanded with Construction Revenue Bond Option.
Livingston, John School Business Affairs; v73 n8 , p32,34 ; Sep 2007
Reviews the creation and make-up of the federal government's Impact Aid program, the revenues from which can be pledged as security for the issuance of bonds. An example of how these funds have been put to work in school construction in Arizona's Whiteriver Unified School District is included, as is advice on considering this process in one's own district.
TO ORDER:
http://asbointl.org/index.asp?bid=4884
Abandoned School Buildings in Rural Illinois and Their Conversions.
Spader, Karin Rural Research Report; v18 n4 ; Spring-Summer 2007
reviews recent literature regarding the benefits of revitalizing abandoned school buildings and presents a summary of findings from a survey of administrators involved in building closures. Examples of school buildings successfully converted to a variety of purposes are provided. School buildings have been converted to use as Head Start and after-school programs, community centers, local organizational headquarters, specialty malls (gifts, furniture, antiques), athletic clubs and commercial enterprises such as photography studios, tanning salons, and restaurants. The author hopes to illustrate options that can be explored in communities before a closed school building is abandoned and reaches sufficient deterioration to no longer have a productive use.
Closing Schools: A Community Engagement Process.
Furey, Brad; Dickinson, David; Ryland, James Educational Facility Planner; v41 n2/3 , p7-10 ; 2007
Outlines a process for engaging the community and logically closing schools. The process and framework for decision-making are illustrated by criteria, filtering characteristics, and special considerations. Quantitative and qualitative data types used by the Milwaukee Public Schools are provided, as are five references.
Pioneer Spirit.
http://www.nea.org/home/14431.htm Long, Cindy NEA Today; v25 n3 , p38-41 ; Nov 2006
Describes the plight of the lone two-room schoolhouse of Baldwin, North Dakota. Local residents face state legislative action that would force school district consolidation, the school's closure, and predicate the demise of the town, even though they have repeatedly voted to raise taxes in order to keep the school open.
The Right Size School.
http://web.archive.org/web/20070317071602 Black, Susan American School Board Journal; v193 n4 , p63-65 ; Apr 2006
Reviews the state of rural schools, including their ongoing issues of student poverty, low achievement, and limited curriculum. Research indicating that impoverished students fare better in small schools than in large supports the retention of small rural schools. Competing trends of consolidation and school size reduction are also examined, as are situations where consolidation and smaller school size have been accomplished together. Includes 11 references.
Mergers, Annexations, Dissolutions.
http://www.aasa.org/SchoolAdministratorArticle.aspx?id=9422 Russo, Alexander The School Administrator; v63 n3 , p10-14,16 ; Mar 2006
Discusses educational program and financial reasons for school district consolidation, and how it is often carried out under state mandate. Strategies for smoother consolidations are suggested, and the positive and negative experiences of several superintendents with consolidation are related.
Nicasio School.
CASH Register; , p8,10 ; Nov-Dec 2005
Profiles this small California K-8 school that features classrooms that host two grades each, community-use facilities, and preservation of the 1871 schoolhouse on the site.
Cultural Connection.
http://www.schoolconstructionnews.com/ME2/Audiences Leisner, Hava School Construction News; v8 n7 , p16-18 ; Nov-Dec 2005
Describes the Paschal Sherman Indian School, which serves the 12 tribes of Washington's Colville Reservation. The K-12 boarding school features locally obtained natural materials, abundant tribal motifs, ample daylighting through both floors, and an ingenious heating system that recycles heat between the dormitory and classroom building.
Master Plan.
http://web.archive.org/web/20070221162919 Johnston, Robert Education Week; v25 n2 , p36-40 ; Sep 07, 2005
Describes the successes of school planner William DeJong and his Schools for Children of the World program in bringing decent school buildings to remote Honduran villages. The project evolved from a single school into a country-wide school facilities assessment, with many new schools built, used, and maintained by their communities.
Small Schools, Poverty, and the Achievement Gap.
http://asbointl.org/asbo/files/ Strange, Marty School Business Affairs; v71 n5 , p20,22,23 ; May 2005
Discusses the mitigating effect of small schools in situations where poverty is an obstacle to educational achievement. In both rural and urban settings, large schools are shown to exacerbate the achievement gap between rich and poor. School size recommendations for poor, affluent, and mixed-income schools are offered, and benefits to small communities that retain their schools are described. Includes five references.
Djidi Djidi Aboriginal Primary School: Celebrating a Noongar Heritage.
Idle, Philip Educational Facility Planner; v39 n4 , p14-17 ; 2005
Describes the design process for this school, which involved extensive exploration of the indigenous culture through meetings with teachers, tribal elders, and parents. The informal, open design reflects indigenous parent/staff attitudes and borrows detailing from the native flora and fauna.
Oak Valley Aboriginal School: A Journey.
Kerkhoven, Ingrid Educational Facility Planner; v39 n4 , p10-13 ; 2005
Describes this extremely remote Australian K-10 school, whose design and construction addressed the extreme heat, winds, lack of water, and abundant sun. The classroom design addressed hearing deficiencies among the aboriginal students. The centrally located and highly observable structure addressed the community's suspicions of a cloistered or distant facility, reminiscent of colonial values.
Pandora-Gilboa PreK-12 School.
http://www.dcd.com/case_studies/0409/040936.html Design Cost Data; v48 n5 , p36,37 ; Sep-Oct 2004
Describes this school that replaced all the existing school buildings in the district. The middle school classrooms are located on the second floor, with high school and elementary classrooms sharing opposite sides of the first. Building statistics, a listing of the design and construction participants, cost details, a floor plan, and photographs are included.
Dealing with Decline.
http://web.archive.org/web/20070629002135 Cook, Glenn American School Board Journal; v191 n9 , p22-26 ; Sep 2004
Describes decreased or shifted enrollment in various school districts, how administrators are dealing with the decline, and steps districts can consider to help prepare for declining enrollments.
Small School with a Big Heart.
http://www.peterli.com/archive/spm/698.shtm Rideout, David School Planning and Management; v43 n6 , p74-76 ; Jun 2004
Describes a new small school in rural Granum, Alberta, which avoided closure by creating this compact facility that accommodates multi-age learning, the latest audiovisual and laptop technology, and flexible classroom spaces.
Crumbling Legacy.
http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2004/04/28/33rosenwald.h23.html Sack, Joetta Education Week; v23 n33 , p30-34 ; Apr 28, 2004
Article on preservation efforts of some of the more than 5,300 Rosenwald schools and other buildings that were built from 1913 to 1932, in rural areas of 15 states. The idea for the schools was conceived by the black educator and author Booker T. Washington and financed by Julius Rosenwald, the president of Sears and Roebuck. Rosenwald set up a program that offered state-of-the-art facility plans designed by architects from Tuskegee Institute and funding for grants that were matched by local communities. The schools served black students who were shut out of regular public schools in the era of Jim Crow, or who attended classes in decrepit structures if at all. [Free subscriber registration is required.]
Public School Facilities: Providing Environments that Sustain Learning.
http://www.schoolfunding.info/resource_center/newsletter/Winter2004.pdf (Campaign for Fiscal Equity, New York, NY, Winter 2004) ACCESS: The Quarterly Journal of the Advocacy Center for Children's Educational Success with Standards; v4 n1 , 4p. ; Winter 2004
Despite evidence demonstrating the importance of quality facilities, a number of obstacles impair efforts to build and maintain schools that are conducive to learning, including: state funding systems that limit financial support and provide incentives to build schools cheaply and defer maintenance; a growing number of facilities requirements; and significant enrollment growth. Urban and
rural districts face additional challenges due to dense and sparse populations, respectively, and state policies that limit funding specifically for their school facilities. As a result of these barriers, countless students across the country, and particularly those in urban and rural areas, attend school in substandard facilities that negatively affect their education.
Wide Open Spaces? Space Guidelines for Schools on Indian Reservations.
Educational Facility Planner; v38 n1 , p10-12 ; 2004
Describes inequities in construction funding for Bureau of Indian Affairs schools and the efforts underway to resolve them. Peculiarities of location, isolation, administration, and culture of these federally-funded schools versus nearby state-funded schools create highly individualized situations.
Rural Schools: Irreplaceable, Unique, Endangered.
http://web.archive.org/web/20060929025853 Pritchard, Matt Educational Facility Planner; v39 n2 , p16-19 ; 2004
Provides an overview of the unique facility threats and needs of small, rural schools, and the importance in sustaining them as vibrant centers for their communities. Issues of funding equity, insufficient property values to sustain a tax base, and consolidation are covered. Includes twelve references and resources.
Shutting the Doors.
Wertz, Dan C. American School Board Journal; v190 n11 , p26-28 ; Nov 2003
Describes the lengthy process and repercussions related to the decision by school board of the Okemos Public Schools in Ingham County, Michigan, to close an elementary school.
Districts Use eBay to Sell
Old School Buildings, Desks.
http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2003/10/01/05ebay.h23.html Borja, Rhea R. Education Week; v23 n5 , p8 ; Oct 2003
As schools struggle with budget shortfalls, an increasing number of districts, as well as towns and government agencies, are selling everything from buildings to reams of construction paper on the Internet auction site eBay Inc. The Elm Valley, South Dakota school district, a rural, 225-student system north of Aberdeen, sold their badly aging building for $49,000. [Free subscriber registration is required.]
Sustaining Small Rural High Schools.
Howley, Craig The School Administrator; v60 n9 , p16-19 ; Oct 2003
Offers several research-based recommendations for sustaining small high schools in rural communities, including: deciding to be small deliberately and not merely by default; working with community members to establish a local endowment for the high school; and making the school useful to the community.
TO ORDER:
American Association of School Administrators, 801 N. Quincy St., Ste. 700, Arlington, VA 22203-1730; Tel: 703-875-0745; Email: magazine@aasa.orghttp://www.aasa.org/SchoolAdministrator.aspx
More than Blue Skies.
Granat, Diane Preservation; v55 n4 , p34-37 ; Jul-Aug 2003
Describes efforts to find and preserve some 5,000 Rosenwald schools. These buildings were funded with seed money during the 1920s from Julius Rosenwald, president of Sears, Roebuck and Company, and served as schools and public buildings for black residents in the rural South.
Australia's Oak Valley Aboriginal School.
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/16/34270551.pdf Allen, Graeme; Kerkhoven, Ingrid; Cox, Noelene PEB Exchange; v2003/1 n48 , p21-23 ; Feb 2003
Describes the planning and design of a new school for an Aboriginal community in Australia which replaced their previously transient school services.
Fighting for Survival: Rural Midwestern Community and Its Schools.
Calabrese, Raymond; Patterson, Jean Planning and Changing; v34 n1&2 , p19-31 ; 2003
Case study examines community values, beliefs, and norms related to school district efforts to pass a bond issue for the improvement and construction of school facilities in a rural midwestern community. (Contains 18 references.)
Rural Education Today.
Eads, Al State Education Standard; v4 n1 , p10-12 ; Winter 2003
Challenges facing rural schools include consolidation, teacher quality, equitable funding, and adequate facilities. The president of the National Rural Education Association presents his views on these issues based on visits around the country.
Rural Schools and Communities Getting Better Together: Building on Assets.
Tompkins, Rachel B. State Education Standard; v4 n1 , p6-9 ; Jan-Feb 2003
Research reports from multiple studies in dozens of states have shown there are advantages to learning in small schools. To take advantage of the assets of rural schools and small-town survival, new state policy directions will be necessary in finance, facilities, teacher pay, preparation, and professional and curriculum development. (Contains 10 references.)
Small Works: Schools in Three States Showcase Virtues of Small Size.
http://web.archive.org/web/20051226092336 Yaunches, Alison Rural Roots; v3 n2 ; Apr 2002
This examines three small schools in Washington, Tennessee and Maine and provides anecdotal evidence identifying the characteristics of small schools that can help explain why small works, and that small, rural schools are worth saving.
Lay of the Land. Facility of the Month.
http://www.schoolconstructionnews.com/ME2/Audiences Schneider, Jay W. School Construction News; v5 n2 , p29-32 ; Mar-Apr 2002
Describes the new San Pasqual Union School, designed to blend with its surrounding agricultural community in California; serving grades K-8, the 26-acre compound resembles a working farm, but buildings include 21st-century technology. Includes photographs, project data, and a sidebar on whiteboard technology products.
Rural Schools Score Major Victory in Arkansas Supreme Court.
http://www.ruraledu.org/keep_learning.cfm?record_no=634 Rural School Finance Report; 2002
The Arkansas Supreme Court issued a decision on November 21, 2002 in Lake View School District v. Huckabee concluding that the state’s system for funding education is both inequitable and inadequate, and as such, violates the state constitution. The court cited underpaid teachers, unsafe facilities, lack of basic equipment and labs, and limited advanced placement course offerings as evidence of deficiencies caused by the inadequate and inequitable finance system. These deficiencies have resulted in low student achievement, high college remediation rates, and poor educational outcomes for thousands of Arkansas students
High-School Village.
Cotton, Bob Texas Architect; v52 n1 , p30-33 ; Jan-Feb 2002
Portrays the Sandra Day O'Connor High School in Helotes, Texas, whose architectural design, materials, and building forms reflect a rural Texas setting and a community wish that the large campus not overpower the nearby town. Includes photographs and a site plan.
Progressive Era Rural Reform: Creating Standard Schools in the Midwest.
Sherman, William L.; Theobald, Paul Journal of Research in Rural Education; v17 n2 , p84-91 ; Fall 2001
Though many maintain that current standards-based school reform is unprecedented, an educational reform effort begun nearly a century ago set standards for improving rural midwestern schools, including facilities. Begun during the tumultuous Progressive Era, the standard-school initiative emerged from a larger concern for the quality of American rural life. A historical rating card for standard rural schools is included.
Rural Schools Need Disaster Plans, Too!
Lemley, Charles; Lemley, Diane Principal; v81 n1 , p30-32 ; Sep 2001
Describes principal-initiated process to develop and implement a disaster preparedness plan for a rural elementary school.
Rural Schools: Facing Unique Challenges.
Beeson, Elizabeth Principal; v81 n1 , p22-24 ; Sep 2001
Discusses five major challenges facing principals in rural schools: school consolidation and busing, teacher shortages, declining enrollments, funding inequities, and deteriorating facilities. Calls for more support to rural schools from the community and local, state, and federal governments.
New Assistance for Low-Income Areas and Infrastructure.
http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/ruralamerica/ra162/ra162f.pdf Reeder, Richard J. Rural America; v16 n2 , p26-34 ; Summer 2001
Changes in federal policy affecting rural development in economically distressed areas in 2001 include new markets initiatives, establishment of the (Mississippi River) Delta Regional Authority, and increased infrastructure funding. Infrastructure priorities include highway construction, airport improvements, public works grants, rural telecommunications, water and sewer systems, and rural school improvement. Implications of definition changes concerning metropolitan areas are discussed.
Out in the Cold.
http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2001/06/13/40alaska.h20.html Richard, Alan Education Week; v20 n40 , p28-31 ; Jun 13, 2001
Discusses how the Alaska state courts are forcing state leaders to improve the condition of schools in the state's far-flung rural areas. The state s response and why it has not done more are explored. Examples of rural school needs are examined. [Free subscriber registration is required.]
Unequal and Inadequate.
Funding Litigants Eyeing Facilities Issues.
http://web.archive.org/web/20060104113829 Rural Policy Matters; v3 n3 ; Mar 2001
This explores whether or not a challenge to the adequacy of school facilities for rural areas under a state constitution education clause provides a second chance in states that have already upheld the constitutionality of k-12 school finance systems. This looks at two facilities cases: Idaho Schools for Equal Educational Opportunity v. Idaho, in Idaho (1999) and Roosevelt Elementary School District No. 66 v. Bishop, in Arizona (1994).
Viewing School Facilities as Community Development Projects: The Case of Hinesburg, Vermont.
MacKinnon, Colleen T. Small Town; v30 n2 , p28-31 ; Mar-Apr 2001
Instead of accentuating differences among agendas through competition for scarce resources, community members, educational planners, and community development planners cooperated in renovating a high school building in Hinesburg, Vermont, to include community spaces for recreation, social services, and nontraditional education. Design elements that promote the greatest possible use of facilities by community members are discussed.
USDA Program Available for Schools, Community Centers.
http://www.ruralschools.org/news/census.html Organizations Concerned About Rural Education (OCRE) Newsroom; Jul 2000
Article describes community development loan and grant funds available from USDA’s Rural Housing
Service that can be used to build schools in rural areas and small towns through its Community
Facilities Program. The Community Facilities Program provides a flexible financing program for rural America
that is versatile and capable of financing a wide variety of projects, including schools and
community centers.
Location, Location, Location.
Finucan, Karen Planning; v66 n5 , p4-8,11 ; May 2000
Discusses how good schools have drawing power in revitalizing both urban and rural communities and increasing property values. Several examples of the value of school renovation and its impact on the surrounding community and enrollment are discussed, including descriptions of planning and financing renovation efforts by some communities.
Pattonsburg Learns from It's Past.
Grones, Freda Roundup: Journal of the Monolithic Dome Institute; v12 n3 , p14-18 ; Fall 1999
Describes the planning of, and community and staff reaction towards, a four-dome, K-12 school complex in a Missouri rural community. The efficiency of the school's design and layout are discussed.
The Rural School Problem in 1999: A Review and Critique of the Literature.
http://www.ael.org/rel/rural/pdf/kan2.pdf Kannapel,Patricia J.; DeYoung, Alan J. Journal of Research in Rural Education; v15 n2 , p67-79 ; Fall 1999
This article reviews key literature on rural education published in the last 25 years. The authors provide an overview of the characteristics and conditions of rural schools, followed by a discussion of the current "rural school problem" and how it developed. They then share various authors' notions of what appropriate rural school improvement projects should (or do) look like. They conclude with a discussion of the key issues, and recommendations for future directions in the field of rural education.
Information, Engagement Help Rural District Pass Bond Issue.
http://web.archive.org/web/20050326215643 Morton, John R. AASA Online; Jun 23, 1999
Discusses how district ensured approval of a proposed $4.2
million bond sale in a community that had experienced an
economic downturn in the previous two years with the
loss of two major employers. District chose not only to
inform, but to engage the community in vision for
school improvement.
TO ORDER:
American Association of School Administrators, 801 N. Quincy St., Ste. 700, Arlington, VA 22203-1730; Tel: 703-875-0745http://www.aasa.org
More Than Bricks and Mortar.
http://web.archive.org/web/20071008085602 Stratton, Charles E. The School Administrator; v56 n6 , 10-13 ; Jun 1999
A superintendent of a rural district in central New York State describes student, staff, parent, and community reactions to a brand-new K-12 building in their own words. Feelings of concern and doubt were dissipated by the time the building opened.
TO ORDER:
American Association of School Administrators, 801 N. Quincy St., Ste. 700, Arlington, VA 22203-1730; Tel: 703-875-0745; Email: magazine@aasa.orghttp://www.aasa.org/SchoolAdministrator.aspx
Reflecting the Communities It Serves.
Brannelly, Kate School Planning and Management; v38 n6 , p22, 24-25 ; Jun 1999
Describes the design of a combined middle and high school that preserved the industrial mills and farming history of two rural towns in Massachusetts. Delineates each school's separate entries and identity spaces and the design innovations that enabled grades 6-8 to be grouped with grades 9-12.
School at the Center in Rural Nebraska.
http://www.ael.org/rel/rural/pdf/kroger.pdf Kroger, Robi The Rural Educator; v21 n2 , p22-24 ; Winter 1999
In Big Springs, Nebraska, school-based projects aim to increase students' knowledge of and connection to their community. Projects have included making and selling detailed miniature reproductions of local buildings, documenting local history, helping to renovate a historic hotel, reenacting a pioneer Christmas celebration, and researching and renovating the natural spring for which the town was named.
An Economical, Thorough, and Efficient School System: The West Virginia School
Building Authority "Economy of Scale" Numbers
Purdy, Deirdre H. Journal of Research in Rural Education; v13 n3 , p170-182 ; Winter-Spring 1997
The West Virginia School Building Authority has arbitrarily emphasized
economies of scale as a requirement for statewide facilities funding. This requirement has
forced consolidation in sparsely populated areas with resultant "diseconomies of scale"
related to transportation costs, increased dropout rates, and decreased parental and
community involvement. Proposes changes in school funding criteria to reflect statutory goals.
Contains 45 references.
Circle of Life.
Kudalis, Eric Architecture Minnesota; v22 n5 , p.26-29 ; Sep-Oct 1996
A school addition and renovation finds inspiration in traditional American Indian imagery. Features the Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwe School near Hayward, Wisconsin.
Implementing Development Impact Fees: A Case Study of a Small Rural Town in
Vermont
Elmendorf, Richard G.; Isley, Phillis W. Small Town; v27 n1 , p4-11 ; Jul-Aug 1996
Impact fees significantly reduce the burden on small town governments to
pay for capital facilities necessitated by new development. Describes how an impact fee
program in St. Albans, Vermont, helped offset costs in providing additional facilities and
services related to parks and recreation, law enforcement, the library, fire protection, road
equipment, and schools.
A Rural School/Community: A Case Study of a Dramatic Turnaround and Its Implications for School Improvement
Carlson, Robert V. Research in Rural Education; v7 n1 , p23-33 ; Fall 1990
Reversing two decades of school-community turmoil, Valley View--a
small, rural community in northeastern Vermont--approved a bond issue
for school construction. This case study uses organizational and
systems theory to examine structural, political, symbolic, and human
resource influences on changing community attitudes. Contains 19
references.
Economic Role of School Districts in Rural Communities.
Sederberg, Charles H. Research in Rural Education; v4 n3 , p125-30 ; Fall-Winter 1987
Explores secondary economic effects of rural Minnesota school districts, including purchasing power of payrolls, employment, retail stimulus, recapture of taxes, property values, and banking services. Provides nontechnical approach to interpreting how school operations offset costs of rural education. Study can be replicated by rural educators.
Rosenwald
Schools
Alcorn, Virgie Educational Facility Planner; v2 n4 ; Jul-Aug 1986
Beginning with an historical review of philanthropic
funding to promote public education for all groups in
the South, the author chronicles the efforts of Julius
Rosenwald whose funding gifts were designated for
elementary schools for black children. The author
traces the growth of the Julius Rosenwald Fund and
building program from its inception in 1917 until 1932
when the last of 5,358 modern rural black schools
was built. The author includes interesting accounts
of the Rosenwald building program.
The Rural School Community Center.
Haniyan, L.J. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science; v67 , p130-138 ; Sep 1916
Presents a 1916 perspective on schools as community centers, citing a rural West Virginia town that put its school to use as a community center for agricultural fairs, evening literacy classes, lectures, and patriotic events. Gathering the community in this manner also afforded the opportunity to raise funds for the school libraries, athletic, and improved roads.
Challenge West Virginia
http://www.challengewv.org/ Challenge West Virginia is a statewide organization of parents, educators, and other West Virginians committed to maintaining and improving small community schools. The website includes resources, activities, and community support services.
National Rural Education Association
http://www.nrea.net/ The NREA is an organization of rural school administrators, teachers, board members, regional service agency personnel, researchers, business and industry representatives and others interested in maintaining the vitality of rural school systems across the country.
Organizations Concerned About Rural Education.
http://www.ruralschools.org/ OCRE is a coalition of more than two dozen education, farm, rural, technology and utility organizations who have a common concern for modern and effective schools. This web site provide resources for funding, news releases and information on their video "Rebuilding America's Schools."
Rosenwald Initiative
http://www.rosenwaldschools.com/ The National Trust for Historic Preservation formed the Rosenwald Schools Initiative for the preservation of Rosenwald schools across the rural regions of the south and southwest. The website includes case studies, history, information on the architecture of Rosenwald schools, and additional resources.
Rural School and Community Trust
http://www.ruraledu.org/ The Rural School and Community Trust addresses the crucial relationship between good schools and thriving communities. The trust has a network of people working to improve school-community facilities, to increase community participation in the facilities design process, and to expand the purposes these public resources can serve.
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Community Facilities Program.
http://www.rurdev.usda.gov/rhs/cf/cp.htm This office administers programs designed to develop essential community facilities for public use in rural areas, including educational facilities. The program provides direct loans, guaranteed loans and grants.
Community Use of Schools http://www.ncef.org/rl/community_use.cfm (National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, Washington, DC) Information on community use of public school facilities during and after school hours, compiled by the National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities.
Condition of Schools in America http://www.ncef.org/rl/conditions.cfm (National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, Washington, DC) Information on the physical condition of school and university buildings across the country, compiled by the National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities.
Preserving Historic Neighborhood Schools http://www.ncef.org/rl/preservation.cfm (National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, Washington, DC) Information on preservation and modernization of historic neighborhood schools, compiled by the National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities.
School Facilities Funding - Adequacy and Equity Issues http://www.ncef.org/rl/equity_funding.cfm (National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, Washington, DC) Information on school funding policies that effect school construction in economically disadvantaged areas, compiled by the National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities.
School Facilities Funding - State and Local http://www.ncef.org/rl/statelocal_funding.cfm (National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, Washington, DC) Information on methods used by state and local governments and school districts to finance school construction, renovation, and repair projects, compiled by the National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities.
School Size/Small Schools http://www.ncef.org/rl/size.cfm (National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, Washington, DC) Information on the issue of optimum school facility size, and class and classroom size, compiled by the National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities.
Site Selection for Schools http://www.ncef.org/rl/site_selection.cfm (National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, Washington, DC) Information on school siting, environmental issues, and state selection criteria, compiled by the National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities.
Smart Growth and Schools
http://www.ncef.org/rl/smart_growth.cfm (National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, Washington, DC) Information on schools in relation to issues of planning and community development, economic impact, smart growth vs. sprawl, and conservation of open spaces.
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